7
Book 2002. Office for National Statistics. The
Philippines
194
5.9
Stationery Office.
Indonesia
169
5.1
Export Credits Guarantee Department Annual
United States
152
4.6
Report and Resource Accounts 2001–02. The
Turkey
144
4.4
Stationery Office, 2002.
Russia Federation
121
3.7
Canada
107
3.2
India
105
3.2
Websites
China
93
2.8
Sub-total
2,384
72.3
Department of Trade and Industry
World
3,298
100.0
www.dti.gov.uk
Source: ECGD
National Statistics
ECGD’s main civil business sectors are shown in
www.statistics.gov.uk
www.
Table 24.14. Power generation and transmission
370
25 Science, engineering and technology
Research and development expenditure
371
Workforce
385
Government role
373
Research in higher education institutions 386
Departmental responsibilities
376
International collaboration
386
Research Councils
379
Other organisations
387
Public engagement in science
382
The UK has been at the forefront of many world-
2000 (see Figure 25.1). Other contributions were
class advances in science, engineering and
made by private endowments, trusts and charities.
technology. Notable areas of UK achievement
As well as financing R&D carried out within
include biotechnology, biomedicine, materials,
business enterprise itself, business enterprise
chemicals, electronics and aerospace.
supports university research and finances contract
research at government establishments. Some
charities have their own laboratories and offer
Research and development
grants for outside research. Contract research
expenditure
organisations carry out R&D for companies and
are playing an increasingly important role in the
Gross domestic expenditure in the UK on research
transfer of technology to British industry.
and development (R&D) in 2000 was £17.5
billion, 1.8 per cent of gross domestic product
Total spending on R&D within business enterprise
(GDP). Of this, £15 billion was on civil R&D, with
amounted to £11.5 billion in 2000. Business
the rest going to defence projects. In real terms,
enterprise own funds accounted for 63 per cent,
gross domestic expenditure on R&D increased by
with 9 per cent coming from government and
2 per cent between 1999 and 2000.
most of the remaining 28 per cent from overseas.
Expenditure on R&D within the pharmaceuticals
Business enterprise is the largest source of
product group accounted for 25 per cent of all
funding, providing 49 per cent of expenditure in
spending. Aerospace and the radio, television and
Figure 25.1 Gross domestic expenditure on R&D in 2000, UK
Total: £17.5 billion
Sector providing the funds
Sector carring out the work
Private non-
Higher
Research
profit (5%)
education
Research
Councils
(1%)
Councils
Private non-
(7%)
(4%)
profit (1%)
Government
Higher
(9%)
education
funding
councils
(7%)
Higher
Government
education
(14%)
(21%)
Business
Business
Abroad
enterprise
enterprise
(16%)
(66%)
(49%)
Source: Office for National Statistics
371
Economic affairs
25 Science, engineering and technology
Some notable British achievements during the
last 50 years
■
In 1953 Francis Crick, together with James Watson
■
In 1975 César Milstein produced the first
of the United States, worked out the structure of
monoclonal antibodies – proteins with enormous
DNA using the experimental results of Maurice
potential in the diagnosis and treatment of
Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.
disease. This discovery transformed biological
research and created biotechnology.
■
In 1955 the first atomic clock was built at the
National Physical Laboratory in Teddington.
■
The technique of in vitro fertilisation, pioneered by
Patrick Steptoe and Robert Edwards, led to the
■
Sir Bernard Lovell pioneered the science of radio
birth of the world’s first ‘test-tube baby’ in 1978.
astronomy in the 1950s, and in 1957 Jodrell Bank,
the world’s first giant radio telescope, opened.
■
In the 1980s Professor Michael Green helped to
develop the ‘superstring’ theories, which see the
■
Interferons – proteins produced in the body to
fundamental building blocks of matter and energy
fight infections – were first isolated and named by
as infinitesimal ‘strings’ rather than points.
Alick Isaacs and colleagues in 1957.
■
Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys, working at Leicester
■
The work of Sir Peter Medawar in the 1950s on
University, developed the technique of DNA
acquired immunological tolerance made possible
fingerprinting in 1985.
the first successful kidney transplants.
■
In 1985 British Antarctic Survey scientists
■
Artificial hip joints were developed and first fitted
discovered the hole in the ozone layer over the
by Sir John Charnley at Wrightington Hospital,
Antarctic. The finding was linked to the growth of
Lancashire, in 1960.